diff --git a/backend/internal/handler/gateway_handler.go b/backend/internal/handler/gateway_handler.go
index beaddbca..a8b7bd61 100644
--- a/backend/internal/handler/gateway_handler.go
+++ b/backend/internal/handler/gateway_handler.go
@@ -135,6 +135,11 @@ func (h *GatewayHandler) Messages(c *gin.Context) {
 	// Track if we've started streaming (for error handling)
 	streamStarted := false
 
+	// 绑定错误透传服务，允许 service 层在非 failover 错误场景复用规则。
+	if h.errorPassthroughService != nil {
+		service.BindErrorPassthroughService(c, h.errorPassthroughService)
+	}
+
 	// 获取订阅信息（可能为nil）- 提前获取用于后续检查
 	subscription, _ := middleware2.GetSubscriptionFromContext(c)
 
diff --git a/backend/internal/handler/gemini_v1beta_handler.go b/backend/internal/handler/gemini_v1beta_handler.go
index be634c0c..3e670378 100644
--- a/backend/internal/handler/gemini_v1beta_handler.go
+++ b/backend/internal/handler/gemini_v1beta_handler.go
@@ -207,6 +207,9 @@ func (h *GatewayHandler) GeminiV1BetaModels(c *gin.Context) {
 
 	// 1) user concurrency slot
 	streamStarted := false
+	if h.errorPassthroughService != nil {
+		service.BindErrorPassthroughService(c, h.errorPassthroughService)
+	}
 	userReleaseFunc, err := geminiConcurrency.AcquireUserSlotWithWait(c, authSubject.UserID, authSubject.Concurrency, stream, &streamStarted)
 	if err != nil {
 		googleError(c, http.StatusTooManyRequests, err.Error())
diff --git a/backend/internal/handler/openai_gateway_handler.go b/backend/internal/handler/openai_gateway_handler.go
index 1dcb163b..835297b8 100644
--- a/backend/internal/handler/openai_gateway_handler.go
+++ b/backend/internal/handler/openai_gateway_handler.go
@@ -149,6 +149,11 @@ func (h *OpenAIGatewayHandler) Responses(c *gin.Context) {
 	// Track if we've started streaming (for error handling)
 	streamStarted := false
 
+	// 绑定错误透传服务，允许 service 层在非 failover 错误场景复用规则。
+	if h.errorPassthroughService != nil {
+		service.BindErrorPassthroughService(c, h.errorPassthroughService)
+	}
+
 	// Get subscription info (may be nil)
 	subscription, _ := middleware2.GetSubscriptionFromContext(c)
 
diff --git a/backend/internal/service/error_passthrough_runtime.go b/backend/internal/service/error_passthrough_runtime.go
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..65085d6f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/backend/internal/service/error_passthrough_runtime.go
@@ -0,0 +1,67 @@
+package service
+
+import "github.com/gin-gonic/gin"
+
+const errorPassthroughServiceContextKey = "error_passthrough_service"
+
+// BindErrorPassthroughService 将错误透传服务绑定到请求上下文，供 service 层在非 failover 场景下复用规则。
+func BindErrorPassthroughService(c *gin.Context, svc *ErrorPassthroughService) {
+	if c == nil || svc == nil {
+		return
+	}
+	c.Set(errorPassthroughServiceContextKey, svc)
+}
+
+func getBoundErrorPassthroughService(c *gin.Context) *ErrorPassthroughService {
+	if c == nil {
+		return nil
+	}
+	v, ok := c.Get(errorPassthroughServiceContextKey)
+	if !ok {
+		return nil
+	}
+	svc, ok := v.(*ErrorPassthroughService)
+	if !ok {
+		return nil
+	}
+	return svc
+}
+
+// applyErrorPassthroughRule 按规则改写错误响应；未命中时返回默认响应参数。
+func applyErrorPassthroughRule(
+	c *gin.Context,
+	platform string,
+	upstreamStatus int,
+	responseBody []byte,
+	defaultStatus int,
+	defaultErrType string,
+	defaultErrMsg string,
+) (status int, errType string, errMsg string, matched bool) {
+	status = defaultStatus
+	errType = defaultErrType
+	errMsg = defaultErrMsg
+
+	svc := getBoundErrorPassthroughService(c)
+	if svc == nil {
+		return status, errType, errMsg, false
+	}
+
+	rule := svc.MatchRule(platform, upstreamStatus, responseBody)
+	if rule == nil {
+		return status, errType, errMsg, false
+	}
+
+	status = upstreamStatus
+	if !rule.PassthroughCode && rule.ResponseCode != nil {
+		status = *rule.ResponseCode
+	}
+
+	errMsg = ExtractUpstreamErrorMessage(responseBody)
+	if !rule.PassthroughBody && rule.CustomMessage != nil {
+		errMsg = *rule.CustomMessage
+	}
+
+	// 与现有 failover 场景保持一致：命中规则时统一返回 upstream_error。
+	errType = "upstream_error"
+	return status, errType, errMsg, true
+}
diff --git a/backend/internal/service/error_passthrough_runtime_test.go b/backend/internal/service/error_passthrough_runtime_test.go
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..393e6e59
--- /dev/null
+++ b/backend/internal/service/error_passthrough_runtime_test.go
@@ -0,0 +1,211 @@
+package service
+
+import (
+	"bytes"
+	"context"
+	"encoding/json"
+	"io"
+	"net/http"
+	"net/http/httptest"
+	"testing"
+
+	"github.com/Wei-Shaw/sub2api/internal/model"
+	"github.com/gin-gonic/gin"
+	"github.com/stretchr/testify/assert"
+	"github.com/stretchr/testify/require"
+)
+
+func TestApplyErrorPassthroughRule_NoBoundService(t *testing.T) {
+	gin.SetMode(gin.TestMode)
+	rec := httptest.NewRecorder()
+	c, _ := gin.CreateTestContext(rec)
+
+	status, errType, errMsg, matched := applyErrorPassthroughRule(
+		c,
+		PlatformAnthropic,
+		http.StatusUnprocessableEntity,
+		[]byte(`{"error":{"message":"invalid schema"}}`),
+		http.StatusBadGateway,
+		"upstream_error",
+		"Upstream request failed",
+	)
+
+	assert.False(t, matched)
+	assert.Equal(t, http.StatusBadGateway, status)
+	assert.Equal(t, "upstream_error", errType)
+	assert.Equal(t, "Upstream request failed", errMsg)
+}
+
+func TestGatewayHandleErrorResponse_NoRuleKeepsDefault(t *testing.T) {
+	gin.SetMode(gin.TestMode)
+	rec := httptest.NewRecorder()
+	c, _ := gin.CreateTestContext(rec)
+
+	svc := &GatewayService{}
+	respBody := []byte(`{"error":{"message":"Invalid schema for field messages"}}`)
+	resp := &http.Response{
+		StatusCode: http.StatusUnprocessableEntity,
+		Body:       io.NopCloser(bytes.NewReader(respBody)),
+		Header:     http.Header{},
+	}
+	account := &Account{ID: 11, Platform: PlatformAnthropic, Type: AccountTypeAPIKey}
+
+	_, err := svc.handleErrorResponse(context.Background(), resp, c, account)
+	require.Error(t, err)
+	assert.Equal(t, http.StatusBadGateway, rec.Code)
+
+	var payload map[string]any
+	require.NoError(t, json.Unmarshal(rec.Body.Bytes(), &payload))
+	errField, ok := payload["error"].(map[string]any)
+	require.True(t, ok)
+	assert.Equal(t, "upstream_error", errField["type"])
+	assert.Equal(t, "Upstream request failed", errField["message"])
+}
+
+func TestOpenAIHandleErrorResponse_NoRuleKeepsDefault(t *testing.T) {
+	gin.SetMode(gin.TestMode)
+	rec := httptest.NewRecorder()
+	c, _ := gin.CreateTestContext(rec)
+
+	svc := &OpenAIGatewayService{}
+	respBody := []byte(`{"error":{"message":"Invalid schema for field messages"}}`)
+	resp := &http.Response{
+		StatusCode: http.StatusUnprocessableEntity,
+		Body:       io.NopCloser(bytes.NewReader(respBody)),
+		Header:     http.Header{},
+	}
+	account := &Account{ID: 12, Platform: PlatformOpenAI, Type: AccountTypeAPIKey}
+
+	_, err := svc.handleErrorResponse(context.Background(), resp, c, account)
+	require.Error(t, err)
+	assert.Equal(t, http.StatusBadGateway, rec.Code)
+
+	var payload map[string]any
+	require.NoError(t, json.Unmarshal(rec.Body.Bytes(), &payload))
+	errField, ok := payload["error"].(map[string]any)
+	require.True(t, ok)
+	assert.Equal(t, "upstream_error", errField["type"])
+	assert.Equal(t, "Upstream request failed", errField["message"])
+}
+
+func TestGeminiWriteGeminiMappedError_NoRuleKeepsDefault(t *testing.T) {
+	gin.SetMode(gin.TestMode)
+	rec := httptest.NewRecorder()
+	c, _ := gin.CreateTestContext(rec)
+
+	svc := &GeminiMessagesCompatService{}
+	respBody := []byte(`{"error":{"code":422,"message":"Invalid schema for field messages","status":"INVALID_ARGUMENT"}}`)
+	account := &Account{ID: 13, Platform: PlatformGemini, Type: AccountTypeAPIKey}
+
+	err := svc.writeGeminiMappedError(c, account, http.StatusUnprocessableEntity, "req-2", respBody)
+	require.Error(t, err)
+	assert.Equal(t, http.StatusBadRequest, rec.Code)
+
+	var payload map[string]any
+	require.NoError(t, json.Unmarshal(rec.Body.Bytes(), &payload))
+	errField, ok := payload["error"].(map[string]any)
+	require.True(t, ok)
+	assert.Equal(t, "invalid_request_error", errField["type"])
+	assert.Equal(t, "Upstream request failed", errField["message"])
+}
+
+func TestGatewayHandleErrorResponse_AppliesRuleFor422(t *testing.T) {
+	gin.SetMode(gin.TestMode)
+	rec := httptest.NewRecorder()
+	c, _ := gin.CreateTestContext(rec)
+
+	ruleSvc := &ErrorPassthroughService{}
+	ruleSvc.setLocalCache([]*model.ErrorPassthroughRule{newNonFailoverPassthroughRule(http.StatusUnprocessableEntity, "invalid schema", http.StatusTeapot, "上游请求失败")})
+	BindErrorPassthroughService(c, ruleSvc)
+
+	svc := &GatewayService{}
+	respBody := []byte(`{"error":{"message":"Invalid schema for field messages"}}`)
+	resp := &http.Response{
+		StatusCode: http.StatusUnprocessableEntity,
+		Body:       io.NopCloser(bytes.NewReader(respBody)),
+		Header:     http.Header{},
+	}
+	account := &Account{ID: 1, Platform: PlatformAnthropic, Type: AccountTypeAPIKey}
+
+	_, err := svc.handleErrorResponse(context.Background(), resp, c, account)
+	require.Error(t, err)
+	assert.Equal(t, http.StatusTeapot, rec.Code)
+
+	var payload map[string]any
+	require.NoError(t, json.Unmarshal(rec.Body.Bytes(), &payload))
+	errField, ok := payload["error"].(map[string]any)
+	require.True(t, ok)
+	assert.Equal(t, "upstream_error", errField["type"])
+	assert.Equal(t, "上游请求失败", errField["message"])
+}
+
+func TestOpenAIHandleErrorResponse_AppliesRuleFor422(t *testing.T) {
+	gin.SetMode(gin.TestMode)
+	rec := httptest.NewRecorder()
+	c, _ := gin.CreateTestContext(rec)
+
+	ruleSvc := &ErrorPassthroughService{}
+	ruleSvc.setLocalCache([]*model.ErrorPassthroughRule{newNonFailoverPassthroughRule(http.StatusUnprocessableEntity, "invalid schema", http.StatusTeapot, "OpenAI上游失败")})
+	BindErrorPassthroughService(c, ruleSvc)
+
+	svc := &OpenAIGatewayService{}
+	respBody := []byte(`{"error":{"message":"Invalid schema for field messages"}}`)
+	resp := &http.Response{
+		StatusCode: http.StatusUnprocessableEntity,
+		Body:       io.NopCloser(bytes.NewReader(respBody)),
+		Header:     http.Header{},
+	}
+	account := &Account{ID: 2, Platform: PlatformOpenAI, Type: AccountTypeAPIKey}
+
+	_, err := svc.handleErrorResponse(context.Background(), resp, c, account)
+	require.Error(t, err)
+	assert.Equal(t, http.StatusTeapot, rec.Code)
+
+	var payload map[string]any
+	require.NoError(t, json.Unmarshal(rec.Body.Bytes(), &payload))
+	errField, ok := payload["error"].(map[string]any)
+	require.True(t, ok)
+	assert.Equal(t, "upstream_error", errField["type"])
+	assert.Equal(t, "OpenAI上游失败", errField["message"])
+}
+
+func TestGeminiWriteGeminiMappedError_AppliesRuleFor422(t *testing.T) {
+	gin.SetMode(gin.TestMode)
+	rec := httptest.NewRecorder()
+	c, _ := gin.CreateTestContext(rec)
+
+	ruleSvc := &ErrorPassthroughService{}
+	ruleSvc.setLocalCache([]*model.ErrorPassthroughRule{newNonFailoverPassthroughRule(http.StatusUnprocessableEntity, "invalid schema", http.StatusTeapot, "Gemini上游失败")})
+	BindErrorPassthroughService(c, ruleSvc)
+
+	svc := &GeminiMessagesCompatService{}
+	respBody := []byte(`{"error":{"code":422,"message":"Invalid schema for field messages","status":"INVALID_ARGUMENT"}}`)
+	account := &Account{ID: 3, Platform: PlatformGemini, Type: AccountTypeAPIKey}
+
+	err := svc.writeGeminiMappedError(c, account, http.StatusUnprocessableEntity, "req-1", respBody)
+	require.Error(t, err)
+	assert.Equal(t, http.StatusTeapot, rec.Code)
+
+	var payload map[string]any
+	require.NoError(t, json.Unmarshal(rec.Body.Bytes(), &payload))
+	errField, ok := payload["error"].(map[string]any)
+	require.True(t, ok)
+	assert.Equal(t, "upstream_error", errField["type"])
+	assert.Equal(t, "Gemini上游失败", errField["message"])
+}
+
+func newNonFailoverPassthroughRule(statusCode int, keyword string, respCode int, customMessage string) *model.ErrorPassthroughRule {
+	return &model.ErrorPassthroughRule{
+		ID:              1,
+		Name:            "non-failover-rule",
+		Enabled:         true,
+		Priority:        1,
+		ErrorCodes:      []int{statusCode},
+		Keywords:        []string{keyword},
+		MatchMode:       model.MatchModeAll,
+		PassthroughCode: false,
+		ResponseCode:    &respCode,
+		PassthroughBody: false,
+		CustomMessage:   &customMessage,
+	}
+}
diff --git a/backend/internal/service/error_passthrough_service.go b/backend/internal/service/error_passthrough_service.go
index 99dc70e3..c3e0f630 100644
--- a/backend/internal/service/error_passthrough_service.go
+++ b/backend/internal/service/error_passthrough_service.go
@@ -6,6 +6,7 @@ import (
 	"sort"
 	"strings"
 	"sync"
+	"time"
 
 	"github.com/Wei-Shaw/sub2api/internal/model"
 )
@@ -60,8 +61,11 @@ func NewErrorPassthroughService(
 
 	// 启动时加载规则到本地缓存
 	ctx := context.Background()
-	if err := svc.refreshLocalCache(ctx); err != nil {
-		log.Printf("[ErrorPassthroughService] Failed to load rules on startup: %v", err)
+	if err := svc.reloadRulesFromDB(ctx); err != nil {
+		log.Printf("[ErrorPassthroughService] Failed to load rules from DB on startup: %v", err)
+		if fallbackErr := svc.refreshLocalCache(ctx); fallbackErr != nil {
+			log.Printf("[ErrorPassthroughService] Failed to load rules from cache fallback on startup: %v", fallbackErr)
+		}
 	}
 
 	// 订阅缓存更新通知
@@ -98,7 +102,9 @@ func (s *ErrorPassthroughService) Create(ctx context.Context, rule *model.ErrorP
 	}
 
 	// 刷新缓存
-	s.invalidateAndNotify(ctx)
+	refreshCtx, cancel := s.newCacheRefreshContext()
+	defer cancel()
+	s.invalidateAndNotify(refreshCtx)
 
 	return created, nil
 }
@@ -115,7 +121,9 @@ func (s *ErrorPassthroughService) Update(ctx context.Context, rule *model.ErrorP
 	}
 
 	// 刷新缓存
-	s.invalidateAndNotify(ctx)
+	refreshCtx, cancel := s.newCacheRefreshContext()
+	defer cancel()
+	s.invalidateAndNotify(refreshCtx)
 
 	return updated, nil
 }
@@ -127,7 +135,9 @@ func (s *ErrorPassthroughService) Delete(ctx context.Context, id int64) error {
 	}
 
 	// 刷新缓存
-	s.invalidateAndNotify(ctx)
+	refreshCtx, cancel := s.newCacheRefreshContext()
+	defer cancel()
+	s.invalidateAndNotify(refreshCtx)
 
 	return nil
 }
@@ -189,7 +199,12 @@ func (s *ErrorPassthroughService) refreshLocalCache(ctx context.Context) error {
 		}
 	}
 
-	// 从数据库加载（repo.List 已按 priority 排序）
+	return s.reloadRulesFromDB(ctx)
+}
+
+// 从数据库加载（repo.List 已按 priority 排序）
+// 注意：该方法会绕过 cache.Get，确保拿到数据库最新值。
+func (s *ErrorPassthroughService) reloadRulesFromDB(ctx context.Context) error {
 	rules, err := s.repo.List(ctx)
 	if err != nil {
 		return err
@@ -222,11 +237,32 @@ func (s *ErrorPassthroughService) setLocalCache(rules []*model.ErrorPassthroughR
 	s.localCacheMu.Unlock()
 }
 
+// clearLocalCache 清空本地缓存，避免刷新失败时继续命中陈旧规则。
+func (s *ErrorPassthroughService) clearLocalCache() {
+	s.localCacheMu.Lock()
+	s.localCache = nil
+	s.localCacheMu.Unlock()
+}
+
+// newCacheRefreshContext 为写路径缓存同步创建独立上下文，避免受请求取消影响。
+func (s *ErrorPassthroughService) newCacheRefreshContext() (context.Context, context.CancelFunc) {
+	return context.WithTimeout(context.Background(), 3*time.Second)
+}
+
 // invalidateAndNotify 使缓存失效并通知其他实例
 func (s *ErrorPassthroughService) invalidateAndNotify(ctx context.Context) {
+	// 先失效缓存，避免后续刷新读到陈旧规则。
+	if s.cache != nil {
+		if err := s.cache.Invalidate(ctx); err != nil {
+			log.Printf("[ErrorPassthroughService] Failed to invalidate cache: %v", err)
+		}
+	}
+
 	// 刷新本地缓存
-	if err := s.refreshLocalCache(ctx); err != nil {
+	if err := s.reloadRulesFromDB(ctx); err != nil {
 		log.Printf("[ErrorPassthroughService] Failed to refresh local cache: %v", err)
+		// 刷新失败时清空本地缓存，避免继续使用陈旧规则。
+		s.clearLocalCache()
 	}
 
 	// 通知其他实例
diff --git a/backend/internal/service/error_passthrough_service_test.go b/backend/internal/service/error_passthrough_service_test.go
index 205b4ec4..74c98d86 100644
--- a/backend/internal/service/error_passthrough_service_test.go
+++ b/backend/internal/service/error_passthrough_service_test.go
@@ -4,6 +4,7 @@ package service
 
 import (
 	"context"
+	"errors"
 	"strings"
 	"testing"
 
@@ -14,14 +15,81 @@ import (
 
 // mockErrorPassthroughRepo 用于测试的 mock repository
 type mockErrorPassthroughRepo struct {
-	rules []*model.ErrorPassthroughRule
+	rules     []*model.ErrorPassthroughRule
+	listErr   error
+	getErr    error
+	createErr error
+	updateErr error
+	deleteErr error
+}
+
+type mockErrorPassthroughCache struct {
+	rules            []*model.ErrorPassthroughRule
+	hasData          bool
+	getCalled        int
+	setCalled        int
+	invalidateCalled int
+	notifyCalled     int
+}
+
+func newMockErrorPassthroughCache(rules []*model.ErrorPassthroughRule, hasData bool) *mockErrorPassthroughCache {
+	return &mockErrorPassthroughCache{
+		rules:   cloneRules(rules),
+		hasData: hasData,
+	}
+}
+
+func (m *mockErrorPassthroughCache) Get(ctx context.Context) ([]*model.ErrorPassthroughRule, bool) {
+	m.getCalled++
+	if !m.hasData {
+		return nil, false
+	}
+	return cloneRules(m.rules), true
+}
+
+func (m *mockErrorPassthroughCache) Set(ctx context.Context, rules []*model.ErrorPassthroughRule) error {
+	m.setCalled++
+	m.rules = cloneRules(rules)
+	m.hasData = true
+	return nil
+}
+
+func (m *mockErrorPassthroughCache) Invalidate(ctx context.Context) error {
+	m.invalidateCalled++
+	m.rules = nil
+	m.hasData = false
+	return nil
+}
+
+func (m *mockErrorPassthroughCache) NotifyUpdate(ctx context.Context) error {
+	m.notifyCalled++
+	return nil
+}
+
+func (m *mockErrorPassthroughCache) SubscribeUpdates(ctx context.Context, handler func()) {
+	// 单测中无需订阅行为
+}
+
+func cloneRules(rules []*model.ErrorPassthroughRule) []*model.ErrorPassthroughRule {
+	if rules == nil {
+		return nil
+	}
+	out := make([]*model.ErrorPassthroughRule, len(rules))
+	copy(out, rules)
+	return out
 }
 
 func (m *mockErrorPassthroughRepo) List(ctx context.Context) ([]*model.ErrorPassthroughRule, error) {
+	if m.listErr != nil {
+		return nil, m.listErr
+	}
 	return m.rules, nil
 }
 
 func (m *mockErrorPassthroughRepo) GetByID(ctx context.Context, id int64) (*model.ErrorPassthroughRule, error) {
+	if m.getErr != nil {
+		return nil, m.getErr
+	}
 	for _, r := range m.rules {
 		if r.ID == id {
 			return r, nil
@@ -31,12 +99,18 @@ func (m *mockErrorPassthroughRepo) GetByID(ctx context.Context, id int64) (*mode
 }
 
 func (m *mockErrorPassthroughRepo) Create(ctx context.Context, rule *model.ErrorPassthroughRule) (*model.ErrorPassthroughRule, error) {
+	if m.createErr != nil {
+		return nil, m.createErr
+	}
 	rule.ID = int64(len(m.rules) + 1)
 	m.rules = append(m.rules, rule)
 	return rule, nil
 }
 
 func (m *mockErrorPassthroughRepo) Update(ctx context.Context, rule *model.ErrorPassthroughRule) (*model.ErrorPassthroughRule, error) {
+	if m.updateErr != nil {
+		return nil, m.updateErr
+	}
 	for i, r := range m.rules {
 		if r.ID == rule.ID {
 			m.rules[i] = rule
@@ -47,6 +121,9 @@ func (m *mockErrorPassthroughRepo) Update(ctx context.Context, rule *model.Error
 }
 
 func (m *mockErrorPassthroughRepo) Delete(ctx context.Context, id int64) error {
+	if m.deleteErr != nil {
+		return m.deleteErr
+	}
 	for i, r := range m.rules {
 		if r.ID == id {
 			m.rules = append(m.rules[:i], m.rules[i+1:]...)
@@ -750,6 +827,158 @@ func TestErrorPassthroughRule_Validate(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 }
 
+// =============================================================================
+// 测试写路径缓存刷新（Create/Update/Delete）
+// =============================================================================
+
+func TestCreate_ForceRefreshCacheAfterWrite(t *testing.T) {
+	ctx := context.Background()
+
+	staleRule := newPassthroughRuleForWritePathTest(99, "service temporarily unavailable after multiple", "旧缓存消息")
+	repo := &mockErrorPassthroughRepo{rules: []*model.ErrorPassthroughRule{}}
+	cache := newMockErrorPassthroughCache([]*model.ErrorPassthroughRule{staleRule}, true)
+
+	svc := &ErrorPassthroughService{repo: repo, cache: cache}
+	svc.setLocalCache([]*model.ErrorPassthroughRule{staleRule})
+
+	newRule := newPassthroughRuleForWritePathTest(0, "service temporarily unavailable after multiple", "上游请求失败")
+	created, err := svc.Create(ctx, newRule)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	require.NotNil(t, created)
+
+	body := []byte(`{"message":"Service temporarily unavailable after multiple retries, please try again later"}`)
+	matched := svc.MatchRule("anthropic", 503, body)
+	require.NotNil(t, matched)
+	assert.Equal(t, created.ID, matched.ID)
+	if assert.NotNil(t, matched.CustomMessage) {
+		assert.Equal(t, "上游请求失败", *matched.CustomMessage)
+	}
+
+	assert.Equal(t, 0, cache.getCalled, "写路径刷新不应依赖 cache.Get")
+	assert.Equal(t, 1, cache.invalidateCalled)
+	assert.Equal(t, 1, cache.setCalled)
+	assert.Equal(t, 1, cache.notifyCalled)
+}
+
+func TestUpdate_ForceRefreshCacheAfterWrite(t *testing.T) {
+	ctx := context.Background()
+
+	originalRule := newPassthroughRuleForWritePathTest(1, "old keyword", "旧消息")
+	repo := &mockErrorPassthroughRepo{rules: []*model.ErrorPassthroughRule{originalRule}}
+	cache := newMockErrorPassthroughCache([]*model.ErrorPassthroughRule{originalRule}, true)
+
+	svc := &ErrorPassthroughService{repo: repo, cache: cache}
+	svc.setLocalCache([]*model.ErrorPassthroughRule{originalRule})
+
+	updatedRule := newPassthroughRuleForWritePathTest(1, "new keyword", "新消息")
+	_, err := svc.Update(ctx, updatedRule)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	oldBody := []byte(`{"message":"old keyword"}`)
+	oldMatched := svc.MatchRule("anthropic", 503, oldBody)
+	assert.Nil(t, oldMatched, "更新后旧关键词不应继续命中")
+
+	newBody := []byte(`{"message":"new keyword"}`)
+	newMatched := svc.MatchRule("anthropic", 503, newBody)
+	require.NotNil(t, newMatched)
+	if assert.NotNil(t, newMatched.CustomMessage) {
+		assert.Equal(t, "新消息", *newMatched.CustomMessage)
+	}
+
+	assert.Equal(t, 0, cache.getCalled, "写路径刷新不应依赖 cache.Get")
+	assert.Equal(t, 1, cache.invalidateCalled)
+	assert.Equal(t, 1, cache.setCalled)
+	assert.Equal(t, 1, cache.notifyCalled)
+}
+
+func TestDelete_ForceRefreshCacheAfterWrite(t *testing.T) {
+	ctx := context.Background()
+
+	rule := newPassthroughRuleForWritePathTest(1, "to be deleted", "删除前消息")
+	repo := &mockErrorPassthroughRepo{rules: []*model.ErrorPassthroughRule{rule}}
+	cache := newMockErrorPassthroughCache([]*model.ErrorPassthroughRule{rule}, true)
+
+	svc := &ErrorPassthroughService{repo: repo, cache: cache}
+	svc.setLocalCache([]*model.ErrorPassthroughRule{rule})
+
+	err := svc.Delete(ctx, 1)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	body := []byte(`{"message":"to be deleted"}`)
+	matched := svc.MatchRule("anthropic", 503, body)
+	assert.Nil(t, matched, "删除后规则不应再命中")
+
+	assert.Equal(t, 0, cache.getCalled, "写路径刷新不应依赖 cache.Get")
+	assert.Equal(t, 1, cache.invalidateCalled)
+	assert.Equal(t, 1, cache.setCalled)
+	assert.Equal(t, 1, cache.notifyCalled)
+}
+
+func TestNewService_StartupReloadFromDBToHealStaleCache(t *testing.T) {
+	staleRule := newPassthroughRuleForWritePathTest(99, "stale keyword", "旧缓存消息")
+	latestRule := newPassthroughRuleForWritePathTest(1, "fresh keyword", "最新消息")
+
+	repo := &mockErrorPassthroughRepo{rules: []*model.ErrorPassthroughRule{latestRule}}
+	cache := newMockErrorPassthroughCache([]*model.ErrorPassthroughRule{staleRule}, true)
+
+	svc := NewErrorPassthroughService(repo, cache)
+
+	matchedFresh := svc.MatchRule("anthropic", 503, []byte(`{"message":"fresh keyword"}`))
+	require.NotNil(t, matchedFresh)
+	assert.Equal(t, int64(1), matchedFresh.ID)
+
+	matchedStale := svc.MatchRule("anthropic", 503, []byte(`{"message":"stale keyword"}`))
+	assert.Nil(t, matchedStale, "启动后应以 DB 最新规则覆盖旧缓存")
+
+	assert.Equal(t, 0, cache.getCalled, "启动强制 DB 刷新不应依赖 cache.Get")
+	assert.Equal(t, 1, cache.setCalled, "启动后应回写缓存，覆盖陈旧缓存")
+}
+
+func TestUpdate_RefreshFailureShouldNotKeepStaleEnabledRule(t *testing.T) {
+	ctx := context.Background()
+
+	staleRule := newPassthroughRuleForWritePathTest(1, "service temporarily unavailable after multiple", "旧缓存消息")
+	repo := &mockErrorPassthroughRepo{
+		rules:   []*model.ErrorPassthroughRule{staleRule},
+		listErr: errors.New("db list failed"),
+	}
+	cache := newMockErrorPassthroughCache([]*model.ErrorPassthroughRule{staleRule}, true)
+
+	svc := &ErrorPassthroughService{repo: repo, cache: cache}
+	svc.setLocalCache([]*model.ErrorPassthroughRule{staleRule})
+
+	disabledRule := *staleRule
+	disabledRule.Enabled = false
+	_, err := svc.Update(ctx, &disabledRule)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	body := []byte(`{"message":"Service temporarily unavailable after multiple retries, please try again later"}`)
+	matched := svc.MatchRule("anthropic", 503, body)
+	assert.Nil(t, matched, "刷新失败时不应继续命中旧的启用规则")
+
+	svc.localCacheMu.RLock()
+	assert.Nil(t, svc.localCache, "刷新失败后应清空本地缓存，避免误命中")
+	svc.localCacheMu.RUnlock()
+}
+
+func newPassthroughRuleForWritePathTest(id int64, keyword, customMsg string) *model.ErrorPassthroughRule {
+	responseCode := 503
+	rule := &model.ErrorPassthroughRule{
+		ID:              id,
+		Name:            "write-path-cache-refresh",
+		Enabled:         true,
+		Priority:        1,
+		ErrorCodes:      []int{503},
+		Keywords:        []string{keyword},
+		MatchMode:       model.MatchModeAll,
+		PassthroughCode: false,
+		ResponseCode:    &responseCode,
+		PassthroughBody: false,
+		CustomMessage:   &customMsg,
+	}
+	return rule
+}
+
 // Helper functions
 func testIntPtr(i int) *int       { return &i }
 func testStrPtr(s string) *string { return &s }
diff --git a/backend/internal/service/gateway_service.go b/backend/internal/service/gateway_service.go
index 308f0f18..0256ac75 100644
--- a/backend/internal/service/gateway_service.go
+++ b/backend/internal/service/gateway_service.go
@@ -3563,6 +3563,34 @@ func (s *GatewayService) handleErrorResponse(ctx context.Context, resp *http.Res
 		)
 	}
 
+	// 非 failover 错误也支持错误透传规则匹配。
+	if status, errType, errMsg, matched := applyErrorPassthroughRule(
+		c,
+		account.Platform,
+		resp.StatusCode,
+		body,
+		http.StatusBadGateway,
+		"upstream_error",
+		"Upstream request failed",
+	); matched {
+		c.JSON(status, gin.H{
+			"type": "error",
+			"error": gin.H{
+				"type":    errType,
+				"message": errMsg,
+			},
+		})
+
+		summary := upstreamMsg
+		if summary == "" {
+			summary = errMsg
+		}
+		if summary == "" {
+			return nil, fmt.Errorf("upstream error: %d (passthrough rule matched)", resp.StatusCode)
+		}
+		return nil, fmt.Errorf("upstream error: %d (passthrough rule matched) message=%s", resp.StatusCode, summary)
+	}
+
 	// 根据状态码返回适当的自定义错误响应（不透传上游详细信息）
 	var errType, errMsg string
 	var statusCode int
@@ -3694,6 +3722,33 @@ func (s *GatewayService) handleRetryExhaustedError(ctx context.Context, resp *ht
 		)
 	}
 
+	if status, errType, errMsg, matched := applyErrorPassthroughRule(
+		c,
+		account.Platform,
+		resp.StatusCode,
+		respBody,
+		http.StatusBadGateway,
+		"upstream_error",
+		"Upstream request failed after retries",
+	); matched {
+		c.JSON(status, gin.H{
+			"type": "error",
+			"error": gin.H{
+				"type":    errType,
+				"message": errMsg,
+			},
+		})
+
+		summary := upstreamMsg
+		if summary == "" {
+			summary = errMsg
+		}
+		if summary == "" {
+			return nil, fmt.Errorf("upstream error: %d (retries exhausted, passthrough rule matched)", resp.StatusCode)
+		}
+		return nil, fmt.Errorf("upstream error: %d (retries exhausted, passthrough rule matched) message=%s", resp.StatusCode, summary)
+	}
+
 	// 返回统一的重试耗尽错误响应
 	c.JSON(http.StatusBadGateway, gin.H{
 		"type": "error",
diff --git a/backend/internal/service/gemini_messages_compat_service.go b/backend/internal/service/gemini_messages_compat_service.go
index eecb88f6..75b69656 100644
--- a/backend/internal/service/gemini_messages_compat_service.go
+++ b/backend/internal/service/gemini_messages_compat_service.go
@@ -1498,6 +1498,28 @@ func (s *GeminiMessagesCompatService) writeGeminiMappedError(c *gin.Context, acc
 		log.Printf("[Gemini] upstream error %d: %s", upstreamStatus, truncateForLog(body, s.cfg.Gateway.LogUpstreamErrorBodyMaxBytes))
 	}
 
+	if status, errType, errMsg, matched := applyErrorPassthroughRule(
+		c,
+		PlatformGemini,
+		upstreamStatus,
+		body,
+		http.StatusBadGateway,
+		"upstream_error",
+		"Upstream request failed",
+	); matched {
+		c.JSON(status, gin.H{
+			"type":  "error",
+			"error": gin.H{"type": errType, "message": errMsg},
+		})
+		if upstreamMsg == "" {
+			upstreamMsg = errMsg
+		}
+		if upstreamMsg == "" {
+			return fmt.Errorf("upstream error: %d (passthrough rule matched)", upstreamStatus)
+		}
+		return fmt.Errorf("upstream error: %d (passthrough rule matched) message=%s", upstreamStatus, upstreamMsg)
+	}
+
 	var statusCode int
 	var errType, errMsg string
 
diff --git a/backend/internal/service/openai_gateway_service.go b/backend/internal/service/openai_gateway_service.go
index 564ffa4d..52800f07 100644
--- a/backend/internal/service/openai_gateway_service.go
+++ b/backend/internal/service/openai_gateway_service.go
@@ -1087,6 +1087,30 @@ func (s *OpenAIGatewayService) handleErrorResponse(ctx context.Context, resp *ht
 		)
 	}
 
+	if status, errType, errMsg, matched := applyErrorPassthroughRule(
+		c,
+		PlatformOpenAI,
+		resp.StatusCode,
+		body,
+		http.StatusBadGateway,
+		"upstream_error",
+		"Upstream request failed",
+	); matched {
+		c.JSON(status, gin.H{
+			"error": gin.H{
+				"type":    errType,
+				"message": errMsg,
+			},
+		})
+		if upstreamMsg == "" {
+			upstreamMsg = errMsg
+		}
+		if upstreamMsg == "" {
+			return nil, fmt.Errorf("upstream error: %d (passthrough rule matched)", resp.StatusCode)
+		}
+		return nil, fmt.Errorf("upstream error: %d (passthrough rule matched) message=%s", resp.StatusCode, upstreamMsg)
+	}
+
 	// Check custom error codes
 	if !account.ShouldHandleErrorCode(resp.StatusCode) {
 		appendOpsUpstreamError(c, OpsUpstreamErrorEvent{